Effects of deflation
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ
Государственное образовательное
учреждение
Высшего профессионального образования
РОССИЙСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ГУМАНИТАРНЫЙ
УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ИНСТИТУТ ЭКОНОМИКИ, УПРАВЛЕНИЯ И
ПРАВА
ФАКУЛЬТЕТ МЕНЕДЖМЕНТ ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ
"DEFLATION"
Реферат
по предмету: АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
1-го курса заочной формы
обучения
Тула, 2010
Content
1. Introduction
2. Causes and corresponding types of deflation
2.1 Money supply side deflation
2.2 Credit deflation
2.3 Scarcity of official money
3. Effects of deflation
3. Effects of deflation
4. Alternative causes and effects
4.1 The Austrian school of economics
4.2 Keynesian economics
5. Historical examples
5.1 In Ireland
5.2 In Japan
4.3 In the United States
6. Conclusion
7. References
Deflation is a persistent fall in some generally
followed aggregate indicator of price movements, such as the consumer price index
or the GDP deflator. Generally, a one-time fall in the price level does not constitute
a deflation. Instead, one has to see continuously falling prices for well over a
year before concluding that the economy suffers from deflation. How long the fall
has to continue before the public and policy makers conclude that the phenomenon
is reflected in expectations of future price developments is open to question. For
example, in Japan, which has the distinction of experiencing the longest post World
War II period of deflation, it took several years for deflationary expectations
to emerge.
In economics, deflation is a decrease in the
general price level of goods and services. Deflation occurs when the annual inflation
rate falls below 0% - a negative inflation rate [1]. This should not be confused
with disinflation, a slow-down in the inflation rate. Inflation reduces the real
value of money over time; conversely, deflation increases the real value of money
- the currency of a national or regional economy. This allows one to buy more goods
with the same amount of money over time.
Most observers tend to focus on changes in consumer
or producer prices since, as far as monetary policy is concerned, central banks
are responsible for ensuring some form of price stability, usually defined as inflation
rates of +3% or less in much of the industrial world. However, sustained decreases
in asset prices, such as for stock market shares or housing, can also pose serious
economic problems since, other things equal, such outcomes imply lower wealth and,
in turn, reduced consumption spending. While the connection between goods price
and asset price inflation or deflation remains a contentious one in the economics
profession, policy makers are undoubtedly worried about the existence of a link
[2].
In the Investment and Saving equilibrium and
Money Supply equilibrium model, deflation is caused by a shift in the supply-and-demand
curve for goods and services, particularly a fall in the aggregate level of demand.
That is, there is a fall in how much the whole economy is willing to buy and the
going price for goods. Because the price of goods is falling, consumers have an
incentive to delay purchases and consumption until prices fall further, which in
turn reduces overall economic activity. Since these idles the productive capacity,
investment also falls, leading to further reductions in aggregate demand. This is
the deflationary spiral. An answer to falling aggregate demand is stimulus, either
from the central bank, by expanding the money supply, or by the fiscal authority
to increase demand, and to borrow at interest rates which are below those available
to private entities.
In more recent economic thinking, deflation
is related to risk: where the risk-adjusted return on assets drops to negative,
investors and buyers will hoard currency rather than invest it, even in the most
solid of securities [5]. This can produce a liquidity trap. A central bank cannot,
normally, charge negative interest for money, and even charging zero interest often
produces less simulative effect than slightly higher rates of interest. In a closed
economy, this is because charging zero interest also means having zero return on
government securities, or even negative return on short maturities. In an open economy
it creates a carry trade, and devalues the currency. A devalued currency produced
higher prices for imports without necessarily stimulating exports to a like degree.
In monetarist theory, deflation must be associated
with either a reduction in the money supply, a reduction in the velocity of money
or an increase in the number of transactions. But any of these may occur separately
without deflation. It may be attributed to a dramatic contraction of the money supply,
or to adhere to a gold standard or other external monetary base requirement.
However, deflation is the natural condition
of hard currency economies when the supply of money is not increased as much as
positive population growth and economic growth. When this happens, the available
amount of hard currency per person falls, in effect making money scarcer; and consequently,
the purchasing power of each unit of currency increases. Deflation occurs when improvements
in production efficiency lower the overall price of goods competition in the marketplace
often prompts those producers to apply at least some portion of these cost savings
into reducing the asking price for their goods. When this happens, consumers pay
less for those goods; and consequently deflation has occurred, since purchasing
power has increased.
Rising productivity and reduced transportation
cost created structural deflation during the peak productivity era of from 1870-1900,
but there was mild inflation for about a decade before the establishment of the
Federal Reserve in 1913. There was inflation during World War I, but deflation returned
again after that war and during the 1930s depression. Most nations abandoned the
gold standard in the 1930s. There is less reason to expect deflation, aside from
the collapse of speculative asset classes, under a fiat monetary system with low
productivity growth.
In mainstream economics, deflation may be caused
by a combination of the supply and demand for goods and the supply and demand for
money, specifically the supply of money going down and the supply of goods going
up. Historic episodes of deflation have often been associated with the supply of
goods going up without an increase in the supply of money, or the demand for goods
going down combined with a decrease in the money supply. Studies of the Great Depression
by Ben Bernanke have indicated that, in response to decreased demand, the Federal
Reserve of the time decreased the money supply, hence contributing to deflation.
Demand-side causes are:
Growth deflation: an enduring decrease in the
real cost of goods and services resulting in competitive price cuts.
A structural deflation existed from 1870s until
the end of the gold standard in the 1930s based on a decrease in the production
and distribution costs of goods. It resulted in competitive price cuts when markets
were oversupplied. By contrast, under a fiat monetary system, there was high productivity
growth from the end of World War II until the 1960s, but no deflation [6].
Productivity and deflation are discussed in
a 1940 study by the Brookings Institution that gives productivity by major US industries from 1919 to 1939, along with real and nominal wages. Persistent deflation was
clearly understood as being the result of the enormous gains in productivity of
the period [7]. By the late 1920s, most goods were over supplied, which contributed
to high unemployment during the Great Depression [8].
Cash building deflation: attempts to save more
cash by a reduction in consumption leading to a decrease in velocity of money.
Supply-side causes are:
Bank credit deflation: a decrease in the bank
credit supply due to bank failures or increased perceived risk of defaults by private
entities or a contraction of the money supply by the central bank.
From a monetarist perspective, deflation is
caused primarily by a reduction in the velocity of money or the amount of money
supply per person.
A historical analysis of money velocity and
monetary base shows an inverse correlation: for a given percentage decrease in the
monetary base the result is nearly equal percentage increase in money velocity
[10]. This is to be expected because monetary base (MB), velocity of base money
(VB), price level (P) and real output (Y) are related by definition: MB*VB = P*Y.
However, it is important to note that the monetary base is a much narrower definition
of money than M2 money supply. Additionally, the velocity of the monetary base is
interest rate sensitive, the highest velocity being at the highest interest rates
[10].
Changes in money supply have historically taken
a long time to show up in the price level, with a rule of thumb lag of at least
18 months. Bonds, equities and commodities have been suggested as reservoirs for
buffering changes in money supply [13].
In modern credit-based economies, a deflationary
spiral may be caused by the central bank initiating higher interest rates, thereby
possibly popping an asset bubble. In a credit-based economy, a fall in money supply
leads to markedly less lending, with a further sharp fall in money supply, and a
consequent sharp fall-off in demand for goods. The fall in demand causes a fall
in prices as a supply glut develops. This becomes a deflationary spiral when prices
fall below the costs of financing production. Businesses, unable to make enough
profit no matter how low they set prices, are then liquidated. Banks get assets
which have fallen dramatically in value since their mortgage loan was made, and
if they sell those assets, they further glut supply, which only exacerbates the
situation. To slow or halt the deflationary spiral, banks will often withhold collecting
on non-performing loans. This is often no more than a stop-gap measure, because
they must then restrict credit, since they do not have money to lend, which further
reduces demand, and so on.
When structural deflation appeared in the years
following 1870, a common explanation given by various government inquiry committees
was a scarcity of gold and silver; although they usually mentioned the changes in
industry and trade we now call productivity. However, David A. Wells (1890) wells
notes that the U. S. money supply during the period 1879-1889 actually rose 60%,
the increase being in gold and silver, which rose against the percentage of national
bank and legal tender notes. Furthermore, Wells argued that the deflation only lowered
the cost of goods that benefited from recent improved methods of manufacturing and
transportation. Goods produced by craftsmen did not decrease in price, nor did many
services, and the cost of labor actually increased. Also, deflation did not occur
in countries that did not have modern manufacturing, transportation and communications
[14].
In economies with an unstable currency, barter
and other alternate currency arrangements such as dollarization are common, and
therefore when the 'official' money becomes scarce, commerce can still continue
(e.g., most recently in Zimbabwe). Since in such economies the central government
is often unable, even if it were willing, to adequately control the internal economy,
there is no pressing need for individuals to acquire official currency except to
pay for imported goods. In effect, barter acts as protective tariff in such economies,
encouraging local consumption of local production. It also acts as a spur to mining
and exploration, because one easy way to make money in such an economy is to dig
it out of the ground.
The effects of deflation are:
Decreasing nominal prices for goods and services
Increasing real value of cash money and all
monetary items
Discourages bank savings and decreases investment
Enriches creditors at the expenses of debtors
Benefits fixed-income earners
Recessions and unemployment
Deflation is generally regarded negatively,
as it causes a transfer of wealth from borrowers and holders of illiquid assets,
to the benefit of savers and of holders of liquid assets and currency. In this sense
it is the opposite of inflation, which is similar to taxing currency holders and
lenders and using the proceeds to subsidize borrowers. Thus inflation may encourage
short term consumption. In modern economies, deflation is usually caused by a drop
in aggregate demand, and is associated with recession and more rarely long term
economic depressions.
While an increase in the purchasing power of
one's money sounds beneficial, it amplifies the sting of debt. This is because after
some period of significant deflation, the payments one is making in the service
of a debt represent a larger amount of purchasing power than they did when the debt
was first incurred. Consequently, deflation can be thought of as a phantom amplification
of a loan's interest rate. If, as during the Great Depression in the United States,
deflation averages 10% per year, even a 0% loan is unattractive as it must be repaid
with money worth 10% more each year. Under normal conditions, the Fed and most other
central banks implement policy by setting a target for a short-term interest rate
- the overnight federal funds rate in the US - and enforcing that target by buying
and selling securities in open capital markets. When the short-term interest rate
hits zero, the central bank can no longer ease policy by lowering its usual interest-rate
target.
In recent times, as loan terms have grown in
length and loan financing is common among many types of investments, the costs of
deflation to borrowers have grown larger. Deflation discourages investment and spending,
because there is no reason to risk on future profits when the expectation of profits
may be negative and the expectation of future prices is lower. Consequently deflation
generally leads to, or is associated with a collapse in aggregate demand. Without
the "hidden risk of inflation", it may become more prudent just to hold
on to money, and not to spend or invest it.
Hard money advocates argue that if there were
no "rigidities" in an economy, then deflation should be a welcome effect,
as the lowering of prices would allow more of the economy's effort to be moved to
other areas of activity, thus increasing the total output of the economy.
Страницы: 1, 2
|