Other taxes. These taxes include a
property tax, land tax, and a natural resource tax. The property tax is placed
on fixed assets of state enterprises and unfinished buildings. A tax of 0.5%
is place on property with a value of Lats1,500 or more. A maximum rate of 4%
is applied to property exceeding a value of lats2.5million. The tax is paid
entirely to the local government. The land tax is placed on the use of land by
individuals and enterprises. The tax is paid directly to the respective
district, village, city, or municipal district budget. Exemptions include
transportation routes and individual farms up to the first five years whose
conditions are unsatisfactory. The natural resources tax was introduced to
discourage excessive use of natural resources and accrues in the Environment
Protection Fund. The tax consists of three parts: a tax on the use of natural
resources, a tax on pollution, and punitive fines for excessive use of natural
resources and pollution. Tax rates are determined by the Environmental
Protection Committee.
Non-tax revenues. These revenues
include fees which are collected on documents and official services performed
by the state, and user charges for various public services including water and
sewage.
Composition of Budgetary Expenditures...
Subsidies and transfers which once
accounted for 60% of the government expenditures have decreased significantly
with reform efforts. Subsidies on food (with meat and dairy products receiving
the largest share) which once accounted for 90% of the total subsidies, have
been dramatically reduced since 1991(World Bank, 1995). Other subsidy
expenditures which have been reduced include price support for: agricultural
producers, agro-industry subsidies, direct transfer to low-profit farms,
housing maintenance, and heating.
Social security expenditures have
increased dramatically to almost one-third of total expenditures by 1991, with
over two-thirds of the fund expenditures being pension benefits. Expenditures
related to defense and administration have been transferred to the general
budget.
Debt...
Like other Baltic states, Latvia is
currently liable for a portion of the debt inherited from the former Soviet
Union. However, Latvia "disclaims responsibility for the Soviet debt
based on the grounds that its annexation to the Soviet Union was illegal under
international law" (EIU, 1995). The total external debt has been
estimated at $60.6 million. Of this debt, $26 million was long-term publicly
guaranteed debt and $34.6 was an IMF credit (EIU, 1995).
Latvia has also recently tapped into
the international bond markets. The government borrowed $40 million through a
two-year bond issue, organized by Nomura Securities, on the Japanese and
international markets. The international bond market was an alternative to the
Latvian treasury bill market where demand has declined as a result of the bank
failure. The bonds are rumored to pay a low coupon rate of 5.4%, due to low
yen interest rates. Demand for domestic Treasury bills has recently begun to
increase, although most interest is centered on the short-term bills. Interest
is beginning to increase slightly in longer-term bills.
EIU forecasts that Latvian foreign
debt will rise to $500 million by the end of 1996 and $690 million by the end
of 1997. Debt-service costs will most likely continue to remain low as much of
the credit is available on concessionary terms. Recent loan agreements include
a 17-year $14 million credit from the World Bank for rehabilitating the heating
system, credits to assist in privatization, and transport infrastructure (EIU,
1995).
Recent budgetary conditions...
Efforts to improve budgeting, budget
execution, and accountability in government finances continue in Latvia.
Budgetary law entitled "Law on Budget and Financial Management" was
passed by Parliament in April of 1994. This law sets rules regarding
formulating, approving, financing, implementing, and auditing the annual budgets
of central and local governments. According to this law, the Cabinet of
Ministers must submit annual central government budget proposals to Parliament
by October 1 for approval of the year preceding the new budget. If the annual
budget has not been approved prior to the implementation date, the government
must operate with the preceding year's budget allocations until the new budget
is approved. "The law also regulates government borrowing and lending,
the granting of guarantees, and the budgetary powers and procedures for local
governments." (IMF, 1995).
The budget law also creates a
Treasury Department within the Ministry of Finance which is responsible for the
execution, reporting, and accounting of the state budget. (A Treasury area was
created by the Ministry of Finance in 1993 which was mainly responsible for the
auction of short-term (28 day) treasury bills.) The Treasury Department, since
creation, has eventually expanded to include other functions such as the
responsibility of assets and liabilities and the social security system.
Efforts were also made to increase
efficiency in the collection of taxes. The State Finance Inspection Board,
responsible for the collection of domestic taxes, and the Customs Department,
responsible for foreign trade taxes, were combined in accordance with law
passed by Parliament in 1993. The new department, the State Revenue Service,
began work in mid-1994.
Budget and fiscal developments...
Latvia has had a pattern of tight
fiscal management, and despite the pressures on revenue and expenditure arising
from the transitional economy, government finances (as a percent of GDP) have
remained relatively stable. "Government has taken steps to improve the
administration of taxes on goods and services in an effort to allow for
additional expenditure on both investment and wages and pensions within budget
organizations.".(EIU, 1995). Tax measures include an increase in VAT
rates and the introduction of excise taxes on gasoline and cars. Improvements
have been made in the collection of taxes at the border and enforcement of tax
evasion penal codes. Efforts are also being made to computerize the collection
of the VAT and excise tax.
Government surpluses have fluctuated
around approximately 1% of GDP. Local and central governments have remained
generally balanced or have shown a slight surplus. The Ministry of Finance
repaid it's debt to the Bank of Latvia in early 1993 through foreign
financing. "Due to budget proposals, government bond issuance, and tax measures,
the general government financial deficit has continually been reduced to within
approximately 1.5% of GDP.".(World Bank, 1995). Revenues from tax
collection have in general continued to increase while expenditures, despite
increases, have been kept below budget levels.
"Within the past several years,
attempts have been made to adjust specific tax structures to offset the
increasing expenditures by unifying the profit tax to within a range of 25-35%
and switching the graduated income tax schedule over to a flat income tax rate
of 25%.".(World Bank, 1995). Minimum wages have also increased 100% since
1994.
Intergovernmental Relations
The general government is composed of
a central government, local government, and extrabudgetary funds including the
Social Security Fund, the Environment Protection Fund, the State Privatization
Fund, and the Foreign Exchange Budget. Local government revenue is obtained
through large transfers of funding from central governments and personal income
tax collection within their jurisdiction. VAT and profit taxes go directly to
the central government, while approximately 50% of personal income tax goes
directly to local government. The remaining 50% is held and administered
through the Local Budget Equalization Fund (LBEF), "developed to adjust
for disparities between different regions and cities by making available
additional resources"(EIU, 1995). Funding transfers from LBEF to local
government for services are determined by formula. LBEF funding for local
government services includes: investment, education, health care, social
benefits, and grants. Local governments are responsible for maintaining these
services. Local government expenditures for social benefits constitutes over
half of total government spending in this area. LBEF infrastructure
allocations are determined separately, cities and rural areas receive funding
based on population. (IMF, 1995).
Currently, local governments are
largely responsible for municipal services such as water, sewage, and solid
waste collection and disposal. Local governments currently do not have the
resources necessary to make investments such as the rehabilitation of existing
sewage facilities. "The need for external financing to support public infrastructure
services and municipalities has become a priority with both the Government's
Public Investment Program and the Bank's Country Assistance
Strategy.".(EIU, 1995).
Monetary Developments
Monetary policy has centered around
the objectives of maintaining price stability and stabilizing the exchange
rate. "The Bank of Latvia has continued to use the purchase and sale of
foreign exchange to maintain a stable exchange rate.".(EIU, 1995). In the
absence of developed financial markets (specifically interbank money markets),
the Bank of Latvia has had little effect on refinancing policies. In an effort
to improve management of band funds, the Bank of Latvia introduced minimum
reserve requirement for all banks. Treasury bill auctions were also introduced
to finance the budget. However, participants of the auction are still limited
to only a few large banks and interest focuses on purchases of short-term
bill.
In 1993, the lats were introduced to
replace the interim currency, the ruble (which was valued at par with the
Russian ruble). The conversion of Latvian rubles to lats proceeded very
smoothly, and was completed in 1994. Rubles currently account for a very small
portion of total currency issued. Posting of prices in foreign currencies was
made illegal in Latvia, although the use of foreign currency is still allowed.
Latvia's move toward a convertible
currency came in two stages. In May 1992, in response to a shortage of Russian
ruble banknotes, the Latvian ruble was introduced as a parallel currency to the
Soviet one in circulation. The two traded equally until Latvia became flooded
with Soviet rubles. Latvia replaced the ruble with the rublis as the legal
tender. In 1993, the rublis was strong enough to move on to the second stage,
the introduction of the national currency , the lats. The rublis was gradually
phased out and ceased to be legal tender on October 18, 1993. In June of 1994
the exchange rate was Lats0.57:$1.
Latvia did not use a 'currency board
system', and lats have been allowed to float freely. As a result, the
independent central bank has had a very important role. It strengthened the
rublis prior to the introduction of the lats through market intervention, the
placement of Russian rubles in a stabilization fund, and high interest rates.
Social Safety Net
"Latvia currently operates a
pay-as-you-go system of public pensions and unemployment benefits, along with
other allowances for general social assistance including allowances for families
with children.".(World Bank, 1995). All social safety net benefits
included in the central government budget are financed through the payroll
tax. Employers pay a general rate of 37% and employees pay 1%. The social tax
for agriculture is divided between enterprises and the worker at 18.5% and .5%
respectively. (IMF, 1995).
Due to the aging population of Latvia
and the expansive coverage of the system, pensions are the largest component of
the social security expenditures. After consultation with a collection of
advisers from the World Bank and the Swedish government, Latvia passed
legislation reforming its existing pension system and created a new, funded
mandatory savings program. In 1993, the pension system was switched over from
a flat-rate average for nonworking pensioners ($25 per month regardless of work
history or disability status) to a system of tiered benefits based on work
history. A permanent pension law is currently under implementation. This law
will separate social funds from the central government budget, and will
introduce a multitier pension system which will separate publicly funded
pensions from privately funded pensions based on need. The law will also
increase the retirement age (IMF, 1995).
In addition to pensions, the social
security system pays family allowances and unemployment benefits. Allowances
are granted to families based on the number of children and the age of the
parents. Unemployment benefit expenditures have remained at low levels.
Enterprises continue to pay two-thirds of unemployment benefits directly.
Total payments for allowances and benefits amount to approximately 2.5% of
GDP. Efforts have been made to increase public works programs which relocate
and train workers. Efforts have also been made to set the social benefits to a
more realistic minimum subsistence level. "Local municipalities have also
been given clearer guidance in prioritizing social assistance
programs.".(EIU, 1995).
The main developmental issue facing
Latvia is the acceleration of the pace of structural reform while maintaining a
stable economy. "One of the key elements of the government's policy
agendas is to support the develop the country's human resources to meet the
needs of a market economy, and at the same time protect the most vulnerable
residents during the transition.".(World Bank, 1995).
Страницы: 1, 2, 3
|