The simple predicate is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or a compound tense form. It generally denotes an action; sometimes, however, it denotes a state which is represented as an action. There is a special kind of predicate expressed by a phraseological unit, the so-called phraseological predicate.

The compound predicate consists of two parts: (a) a finite verb and (b) some other part of speech: a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verbal, etc. The second component is the significant part of the predicate. The first part expresses the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, mood and voice; besides it has a certain lexical meaning of its own. The compound predicate may be nominal or verbal.

The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verb and a predicative (the latter is also called the nominal part of the predicate).

The compound verbal predicate consists of a modal verb (modal expression) or a verb expressing the beginning, repetition, duration or cessation of the action, and an infinitive or a gerund.

There are also mixed types of predicates.

The object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun. There are three kinds of object in English: the direct object, the indirect object, and the cognate object (e.g. to live a happy life).

The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character. There is a special kind of attribute called apposition which may be close or loose (detached).

The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb. There exist adverbial modifiers of time, frequency, place and direction, attendant circumstances, degree and measure, cause, result (consequence), comparison, concession and purpose.

The complicating elements of the sentence are homogeneous members (two or more subjects, predicates, etc.), specifying parts of the sentence (objects, attributes, adverbial modifiers) and detached, or loose, parts of the sentence, i.e. those which assume a certain grammatical and semantic independence. In spoken language they are marked by intonation, pauses, and special stress; in written language they are generally separated by commas or dashes.

Theme 8. THE SENTENCE (continued)

Point 1.2. Models of the sentence. The notion of the syntactic paradigm. The word order in the sentence. Semantic and syntactic characteristics of the sentence. The notion of predicative and non-predicative symbols. Types of predicates. The notion of inclusive and included predicates. The role semantics of the sentence. The notion of presupposition.

(a) The sentence as a unit of information in the speech succession sets off its own generalized model, a typical construction which stands behind the concrete lexico-semantic composition of the utterance bound to its context. This model is a combination of two essential signemic functions of the sentence: the nominative and the predicative. However, different types of sentences have their own characteristic models that are observed in most cases. Thus we may speak of a specific model of a declarative sentence (a fixed word order, a falling intonation), an interrogative sentence (structural or structural and morphological changes, a rising or/and falling intonation), a complex sentence, etc.

There are some general principles of constructing syntactic paradigms of predicative functions, with a differentiation between syntactic paradigms of the `normal' type and the `actual' type.

The normal paradigm of a sentence should include all forms of its changing, e.g. This is true. - This isn't true. - Is this true? - This is true, isn't it?, etc.

The actual paradigm should be based upon a real sentence of the text, e.g. She couldn't hear it. - Couldn't she hear it? - She couldn't have heard it. - It couldn't be heard by her., etc.

Arrangement, or order of words is of especially great importance in such languages as English whose inflexion is comparatively scarce and syntactic relations are chiefly expressed by analytical means. Words have to be arranged in a definite order, in a definite succession to express such syntactic relations as, say, attributive, predicative, subject-object relations. It is preferable to distinguish between two sets of phenomena within a sentence:

(1)normal order, which may be either the order “subject-predicate”, as in most declarative sentences, or “predicate-subject”, as in most interrogative and in some declarative sentences (There are many people in the room. There came a thunderstorm.)

(2)inverted order, or inversion, which may be the order “predicate-subject” in a special type of a declarative sentence (Only at sunset did I leave the house.) or “subject-predicate” in a special type of a sentence characterized in general by the order “predicate-subject” (the latter is a very rare phenomenon indeed).

Taking into consideration the two-aspective character of the sentence as a signemic unit of language, predication should be interpreted not simply as referring the content of the sentence to reality, but as referring the nominative content of the sentence to reality. It is this interpretation of the semantico-functional nature of predication that discloses, in one and the same generalized presentation, both the unity of the two identified aspects of the sentence, and also their different, though mutually complementary meaningful roles.

The predicate expresses two variants of structural meanings:

- the meaning inherent in the predicate as a definite part of the sentence, i.e. the meaning of the predicative signal;

- the meanings connected with the grammatical categories of a finite verb ( the meanings of mood and tense, voice, person and number), i.e. the meanings of non-predicative signals.

There are two basic types of predicates: the verbal predicate and the nominal predicate. Some linguists set off a third type of predicates - the phraseological predicate. All the three types have been mentioned and described in detail earlier, in the lecture dealing with the predicate.

Besides simple predicates consisting of only finite verbs, there may be inclusive and included predicates.

Inclusive predicates are such structures which contain a finite verb and some other parts of speech, e.g. We are sitting. - She had breakfast. - He is supposed to have arrived.

Included predicates are parts of larger structures, e.g. There appeared a young girl in the doorway.

Semantic units that represent language identification of the participants of a situation are called semantic roles. The main bearers of role meanings are nominal groups. Semantic roles, or rather a definite set of them, together with the action expressed by a verb, reflect the language semantic model of a non-language situation. A set of semantic roles which is implied by the lexico-semantic contents of a verb, and which allows for an adequate reflection of the situation, comprises the role structure of the verb. For instance, in the sentence `They showed him the jewels' the role structure of the verb `to show' includes the agent, the object of the action, and the object to which the action is directed. Thus role structures reflect the nature of objective relations between things (or persons) in reality.

Presupposition is a judgement drawn from the sentence where it is present in a covert form (cf. He came late. - Even he came late./here the word `even' reflects the presupposition which may be worded as `it is unexpected'/).

Some scholars are of the opinion that presupposition is a condition (or conditions) that should be fulfilled before the sentence can be used in any communicative function (cf. Please, open the door./there must be some door, and it must be closed/).

Anyway, presupposition is characterized by three essential factors:

- its drawability (ambiguity);

- its insensitiveness to negation (cf. Even he came late. - Even he did not come late./the sentences are quite different in meaning but the presupposition is the same: contrary to my expectations/);

- its pragmatic contents (it shows the author's attitude).

Point 2. Actual division of the sentence. Methods of identification of the theme and the rheme.

(a) Alongside of the traditional nominative division of the sentence, the idea of the so-called `actual division' of the sentence has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. The purpose of the actual division of the sentence, called also the `functional sentence perspective' (FSP), is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance, i.e. from the point of view of the immediate semantic contribution they make to the total information conveyed by the sentence in the context of connected speech. In other words, the actual division of the sentence in fact exposes its informative perspective.

(b) The main components of the actual division of the sentence are the theme (T) and the rheme (R). The theme (from the Greek `the' - `to set', `to establish') expresses the starting point of the communication, i.e. it denotes an object or a phenomenon about which something is reported. The rheme (from the Greek `rhe' - `to say', `to tell') expresses the basic informative part of the communication, its contextually relevant center. Between the theme and the rheme are positioned intermediary, transitional parts of the actual division of various degrees of informative value (these parts are sometimes called `transition'). The theme and the rheme of the actual division of the sentence may or may not coincide with the subject and the predicate, respectively.

E.g. They obeyed. Here is your book.

T R T R

Point 3. The main semantic types of sentences. Existential sentences. Qualifying sentences. Identifying sentences and others.

(a) The semantic classification of simple sentences should be effected at least on the three bases: first, on the basis of the subject categorical meanings; second, on the basis of the predicate categorical meanings; third, on the basis of the subject-object relation.

Reflecting the categories of the subject, simple sentences are divided into personal and impersonal. The further division of the personal sentences is into human and non-human; human - into definite and indefinite; non-human - into animate and inanimate. The further essential division of impersonal sentences is into factual (It rains; It's 5 o'clock) and perceptional (It smells of hay here).

Reflecting the categories of the predicate, simple sentences are divided into process-featuring (`verbal') and, in the broad sense, substance-featuring (`nominal'). Among the process-featuring sentences actional and statal ones are to be discriminated (The window is opening. - The window is glistening in the sun.); among the substance-featuring sentences factual and perceptional ones are to be discriminated (The sea is rough. - The place seems quiet.).

Finally, reflecting the subject-object relation, simple sentences should be divided into subjective (John lives in London.), objective (John reads a book.) and neutral or `potentially' objective (John reads.), capable of implying both the transitive action of the syntactic person and the syntactic person's intransitive characteristic.

On the other hand, taking into account general semantics of sentences, we may classify them into existential, qualifying, identifying, etc.

(b) Existential sentences express the general idea of something or somebody existing by means of various lexico-semantic facilities, of which the predicate is the signemic center.

(c) Qualifying sentences lay the main stress on qualifying some fact of reality conveyed in speech, whether it is substance, action or state, etc.

(d) Identifying sentences mostly serve to identify various phenomena with each other to express the idea more clearly and adequately.

Theme 8. THE SENTENCE (continued).

Point 4. Communicative types of sentences.

In accord with the purpose of communication three cardinal sentence-types have long been recognized in linguistic tradition: first, the declarative sentence; second, the imperative (inductive) sentence; third, the interrogative sentence.

The declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative or negative, and as such stands in systemic syntagmatic correlation with listener's responding signals of attention, of appraisal (including agreement or disagreement), or of fellow-feeling.

The imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative. That is, it urges the listener, in the form of request or command, to perform or not to perform a certain action. As such, the imperative sentence is situationally connected with the corresponding `action response', and lingually is systemically correlated with a verbal response showing that the inducement is either complied with, or else rejected.

The interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. a request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener. It is naturally connected with the answer, forming together with it a question-answer dialogue unity.

Point 5. Nominative and modal-communicative aspects of the sentence. Modus and dictum.

(a) The nominative aspect of the sentence is a major functional and lingual aspect of speech. Nomination effects naming of sentential events or situations whereas modal-communicative aspects correlate the named events or situations with reality, considering the purpose of communication.

The modal aspect is versatile. Structurally, the basic modal aspect is the one implied by the mood of the verb-predicate. It is inherent in every sentence. Even verbless sentences are thought of as belonging to some kind of aspect. The basic modal aspect presents the described as real or unreal. Another modal layer of meanings, conveyed by modal words and constructions, serves to enhance or diminish the general modal meaning of the sentence, and brings in a subjective flavour, showing the author's attitude clearly and distinctly.

(b) Modus (Latin - `measure', `method') denotes any means of reporting some communication in speech, comprising a great variety of lexico-grammatical signals.

Dictum (from the Latin `dicto' - `I dictate', `I order') denotes any piece of communication within the framework of connected speech.

Point 6. Pragmatic aspects of the sentence. The correlation of semantics and pragmatics of the sentence.

(a) Pragmatic syntax studies the social designation of language, i.e. the usage of sentences in speech activity. The sentence is a concentration of functional peculiarities of language and speech. Studying sentence pragmatics comprises an important sphere of language knowledge, since language literacy presupposes not only an ability to construct sentences (language competence) but also an ability to use them correctly in acts of speech to achieve the desired communicative-functional result (communicative competence).

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