number of agreed observations

Percentage agreement = --------------------------Ч 100% total number of observations

The ratio should not be lower than 80% to consider the observation tasks to be reliable. Further discussion with each other and interviewing the teacher after observation can verify and refine the original description of learner's behaviour and categories where the incongruence has occurred.

Appropriate comments of student teachers to the categories in the charts during actual observation and coherence between the comments and the focus of the observation task will reveal the evidence of the content validity of the tasks. Moreover, field and jotted notes, comments while and after the lesson should examine the consistency of tasks with the current theories on learning styles and motivation, and reveal the evidences of the construct validity. Criterion validity of the tasks can be easily measured against parallel questionnaires on learner's personality that student teachers conduct doing the assignments recommended by the Department of Psychology for the Teaching Practicum. Before applying the learner observation tasks into practice the tasks are supposed to be checked on face validity, by consulting with colleagues and methodologists who have some experience in supervision of the Teaching Practicum.

Chapter 5

Discussion

5.1. Classroom climate

`Classroom' and `social climate' are two constituents of this notion.

5.1.1 Classroom as a space and its design

Typically a classroom consists of a group of individuals who work together in an enclosed room space over a period of time. Numerous methodologists agree that a place plays an important role in `encoding the cultural and social understanding of the behaviour and actions appropriate to an environment' (Lee, Danis, Miller and Jung, 2001:62). In this view, the classroom is a social and pedagogical entity. It is the place where a structure of social interactions develops and evolves, where a number of events happen and influence students' behaviour. In other words classroom environment involves more than the interaction between teacher, learners, and learning materials or activities: `they are social as well as educational actions which will be conducted in a real-world setting which is characterised by a number of pragmatic and attitudinal factors' (Tudor 1996:155). Classroom size, light, furniture, classroom design, equipment constitute pragmatic factors.

The layout of the classroom with the pragmatic factors inclusively is supposedly designed in a way that supports social climate in the classroom and teaching/learning process. While there probably is an infinite number of ways of arranging a classroom, three are most common: traditional (three or four straight rows), horseshoe (semi-circular rows), and modular (a small-scale design).

Seating arrangement, teaching methods and patterns of behaviour

The particular seating arrangement determines as the teaching method as the students' behaviour. The traditional straight-row arrangement which is predominating in most educational settings is designed for information delivery methodology. It places the primary interaction focus on the teacher and minimizes student-student communication. With regard to the horseshoe arrangement, it would be the best if both student-student and student-teacher interactions are important to the learning in the class. Classes such as those enhance problem solving discussion and increase ego involvement of most students. The modular arrangement is advocated for classes in which student-student interaction is most important. If groups are formed in the class, this arrangement permits maximum interaction among students within a group while minimizing the interference of one group with another. This arrangement is also recommended for classes which require that the teacher work closely with individuals or groups rather than primarily with the class as a whole.

Location within the seating arrangement implicitly verifies patterns of behaviour and student-student, students-teacher relationship. The classroom patterns involve traditions, set of beliefs and recipes for both teachers and students `in the sense that there are tacit understandings about what sort of behaviour is acceptable' (Holliday 1994:24). The straight-row arrangement requires highly motivated students who demonstrate respect and obedience towards the teacher. In the horseshoe arrangement teacher and students share the focus, and students are supposed to demonstrate mutual respect and tolerant behaviour towards the teacher and each other. In modular arrangement the focus is shifted towards students. The behaviour within a group is more complex as every student with his/her specific character may take active position. Thus every student may exhibit as verbal as emotional behaviour and bring some alteration into relationship and social climate over a span of time.

5.1.2. Social climate

Emotional atmosphere and group cohesiveness

The term `social climate' refers to the emotional atmosphere present in the classroom. Classroom climate can range from a non-threatening, supportive, free atmosphere, to classrooms where hostility, frustration, tension, and anxiety dominate all relationships.

In social and psychological studies the key tenet is the assumption that the emotional atmosphere, or `climate', in which a group works, exerts a directive influence on behaviour and people's relationship. In classroom situations where conditions of good climate exist, there is opportunity for students to express themselves freely; moreover, they work more cohesive as a social group. Group cohesiveness determines to a high degree the development of cognition of its members. This idea is traced in various learning theories, such as Vygotsky's (1978) theory of social development, Bandura's (1977) social learning theory, Johnson and Johnson's (1989) theory of cooperative learning.

Group power and individual behaviour

Psychological studies of group behaviour have found that individuals behave differently in groups than they do when they are alone. `All groups posses a power to influence and establish their own norms of behaviour and attitudes within their community' (Bany and Johnson 1964:39). What is more all groups tend to make members conform to these norms and values approved by the group. The values established by the group can vary in extremes. A group may display an atmosphere in which the members feel free because of prevailing kindness and friendliness. In another group, an atmosphere of suspicion, jealousy, or high competitiveness may exist. The kind of pressure that operates to influence individual behaviour can be overt and subtle. It can range from mild teasing to strong ridicule if the group member fails to conform. But an observer should take into account that a classroom group does not always give overt evidence of being a cohesive unity. Sometimes a quarrel over an incident that happened during the play period does not indicate the class group is not friendly, or a vigorous disagreement over group work shows a lack of solidarity. That is why every situation should be treated and reflected within a specific context.

5.1.3 Gender differences in behaviour

There are some stereotypes of gender differences in behaviour such as that boys are generally more aggressive, physically and verbally, and enjoy taking risks whereas girls are more sociable, more nurturing and more compliant. Teachers are aware of this phenomenon and they tend to challenge `disruptive' boys and not girls during questioning sessions. Children's interaction with each other is also affected by the gender composition of their working groups. An anonymous reviewer in the studies of Pica, Holliday Lewis, Berducci, and Newman (1991) has noticed that `the concept of gender is a relational construct and very much influenced by interlocutors' perceptions of each other during social interaction' (Pica et al., 1991:369).

5.1.4. The description of the task

The overall task (see Appendix 1) is targeted to raise awareness with student teachers about the factors that enhance positive classroom climate and classroom discipline respectively. The second task relates to gender differences in physical behaviour and attitude to each other, the teacher and the lesson in general. Another concern of the task involves studying students' preferences for seats within different types of seating arrangements. The more advanced aim is to give student teachers a hint about the type of communication as well as the amount of communication that learners produce in different classroom arrangement.

This task is accomplished during the first meeting of a trainee with the class group. Student teachers are recommended to take a position aside from the pupils' desks to notice facial expressions, emotions and any other physical motions every time the teacher attends to an individual or small group of learners. I have chosen the procedure of teacher's attendance to learners as a measurement of learners' behaviour. Although it does not indicate the frequency of occurrence of learners' behaviour but it gives a student-teacher the idea about the techniques of classroom management, student-student, and teacher-students relationships in particular. For example, if a learner is doing another task different from the lesson objectives the teacher keeps the situation on alert and might attend to the pupil immediately.

A grid of learners' seating arrangement should give student teachers a rough idea about the method that the teacher employs as it is described above. Gender indication is important as it provides a good picture of social climate and relationship, and teacher's techniques of classroom management.

Student teachers are guided with some graphical symbols that reflect this or that physical behaviour which typically occurs in the classroom. At the same time pre-service teachers feel free in adding any other symbols for different behaviour than is indicated in the case if they notice during observation. I have introduced graphic symbols to put against every student on the grid without verbal description as symbolic indication is more feasible. This technique permits pre-service teachers to capture non-verbal behaviour that occurs very fast in real time. The system provides graphic symbols that are internationally recognised and comprehensive. Moreover, graphic symbolic indication simplifies the design and further analysis. Graphic symbols reflect concrete non-verbal behaviour and allow an observer to keep and recall the events that have happened during the lesson very easily. After the lesson student teachers have more time to describe the behaviour they observed in more precise words while reflecting on the influence of physical behaviour of students on the classroom climate.

Student teachers are guided with three additional tasks. They are recommended to make some field notices on the learner's response to the teacher's attendance. Fixing actual utterances that are produced by learners should promote further recollection of the type and the amount of language produced by the pupils in different positions. Another task provides the idea about learners' behaviour and comfort while changing their positions. Pre-service teachers should capture the `action zone' (Shamim 1996:123) of students where they feel free in movements without disturbing each other physically. Finally, student teachers are asked to notice and fix the behaviour of learners in two time intervals, at the beginning and at the end of working on the task in a new seating arrangement. In so doing student teachers should infer learners' preferences for seating arrangement and the amount of time they can work together comfortably.

After the lesson student teachers are recommended to comment on all the tasks mentioned above immediately. During further post-observation discussion they continue their reflection on the relationship between seating arrangement and social climate in the classroom. Analysing gender-related differences in physical behaviour pre-service teachers will infer learners' attitude to each other, the teacher and studying process in general. As it was mentioned above analysis of the type of utterances and their amount will lead student teachers to infer the influence of seating arrangement on learners' involvement into the lesson and their progress in learning accordingly. Finally, student teachers will plan their future lesson in accordance with learners' comfort and preferences for seating positions that provides effective classroom management and eventually enhances pupils' learning progress.

5.2. Learner motivation

5.2.1 Types of motivation

Motivation is an internal drive that encourages somebody to pursue a course of action. If we define the goal and if that goal is sufficiently attractive we will be strongly motivated to do whatever is necessary to achieve that goal. A positive relationship between motivation and second language achievement is arguable among researchers but in general language teachers acknowledge that strongly motivated learners are easier to teach than those who have no such goals.

The best known categorization of motivation in language learning is the distinction between integrative and instrumental motivation. An integrative motivation involves an interest in learning foreign language because of `a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group' (Gardner 1985:6). The term `instrumental' describes a situation in which students believe that mastery of the language has `some practical value and advantages of learning a new language' (Gardner 1985:10). The language is treated as an instrument in their attainment of such a goal. Learners can, of course, have both integrative and instrumental motivation as it is impossible to separate two kinds of motivation in every situation of the learning process. Muchnick and Wolfe (1982:273) found evidences of both strong integrative and strong instrumental motivation in the same students.

5.2.2 Constituents of motivation

Constituents of integrative motivation

Motivation is `subjective experience' (Good and Brophy 2000:217) that cannot be observed directly, but it can be inferred from students' physical behaviour. The key dimensions that demonstrate strong motivation are `effort' which learners put into their learning, `persistence' with which learners continue doing their work in a determined way, and `activeness' which is defined as frequency of participation in classroom contexts. But the first two variables demand high inferences from more observable learning behaviours such as working independently on the task for a long time, consulting with the teacher or the peer when uncertain, working at home with additional material, or display of hilarious emotion in response to the teacher's reward. Although the relationship between frequent participation and second language achievement remains uncertain it clearly indicates interest to foreign language studying.

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