All, another, any, both, each, either, few, many, neither, one, other, several, some, this, these, that, those, which, whose, and what are usually pronouns when they stand alone but are modifiers, not pronouns, when they modify nouns.

VERB Verbs make statement about persons, places, or things, ask questions, or give commands.

Statements: Some historians still question Captain John Smith's account of his adventures.

Question: Did Pocahontas actually rescue him?

Command: Read Marshall Fishwick`s article «Was John Smith a Liar?» in American Heritage.

ADJECTIVE An adjective is a word that describes or limits a noun or pronoun.

An adjective usually answers one of these questions: «Which?» «What kind of» «How many?» «How much?» A, an, and the, the most common adjectives, are also called «articles». Mountains are climbing, study book, Boston 2003

By 1700 there were 80,000 settlers in the low-lying areas along the New England coast and in the great central valley of Connecticut and Massachusetts.

The massive oak door opened.

The subject and predicate, placed on a straight line, are separated by a short vertical line. Adjectives are placed on slant lines under the words they modify.

ADVERB An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

Adverbs not only answer the questions «When?» «Where?» «How?' «Why?» «How much?» and «How often?» but also help to ask questions.

Where and when did Oliver Hazard Perry defeat the British navy?

Many adverbs and some adjectives end in ly.

To the tune of a lively polka the dancers whirled merrily about the hall.

(Lively is an adjective modifying polka. Merrily is an adverb modifying whirled.)

The extremely important meeting was quite poorly attended.

Adverbs are placed on slant lines under the words they modify. The adverb extremely modifies the adjective important. The adverb poorly modifies the verb was attended. The adverb quite modifies the adverb poorly.

If two or more words are used as a single unit, check the dictionary to see if the group is given as a separate entry. If so, diagram the group as though it were one word. Examples of such groups are Bay of Fundy, Siamese cat, and post office.

PREPOSITION A preposition shows the relation of the noun or pronoun following it to some other word in the sentence.

About seventy words may be used as prepositions: about, above, across, after, against, along, among, etc.

The story of Los Angeles begins with a Portuguese sea captain in the employ of Spain.

A preposition may be two or more words.

According to by means of in regard to on account of

Ahead of by way of in spite of out of

Because of in front of instead of up of

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION The noun or pronoun after a preposition is the object of the preposition.

In 1542 Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo sailed up the west coast of Mexico to San Pedro Bay.

PHRASE A phrase is a group of related words not containing a subject and a predicate.

Phrases may be used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE consists of a preposition and its object, which may or may not have modifiers.

A prepositional phrase is ordinary used like an adjective or an adverb.

One of California's most prosperous missions was built near the present site of Los Angeles.

A preposition is placed on a slant line, and its object is put on a horizontal line joined to the slant line. Nouns and pronouns in the possessive case (see California's) are used like adjectives.

PRACTICE 4 Identifying Parts of speech.

Diagram the following sentences.

OR Copy the following sentences, skipping every other line. Underline the simple subject once and the predicate verb twice. Write adj. over every adjective and adv. Over every adverb. Enclose prepositional phrases in parentheses.

Example: Berea College is located in a beautiful town in central Kentucky.

BEREA COLLEGE

1. Visitors at the college walk along tree-shaded lanes to the various workshops of the college.

2. Many college industries operate successfully.

3. Students work at various activities for ten hours during each weak.

4. The profitable enterprises help with college expenses.

5. A beautiful hotel in town is owned by the college.

6. Student waitresses serve in the cheerful dining room.

7. Other students work busily at administrative jobs in the hotel.

8. A dairy farm is operated by the students.

9. Excellent baked goods are distributed throughout a large area.

10. Clever toys are sold in local shops.

11. Furniture of superior quality is turned out by student craftsmen.

12. Cooperative education has prospered for a century at Berea College.

CONJUNCTION A connects words or groups of words.

Conjunction is from conjugate, a Latin word meaning «to join together»

Conjunctions, unlike prepositions, do not have objects.

A natural ice mine in Pennsylvania forms ice in the spring and summer but never in the winter months.) Mountains are climbing, study book, Boston 2003

Before the Revolutionary War, Kentucky and Tennessee were known to the Indians as the Middle Ground or the Dark and Bloody Ground. (And connects Kentucky with Tennessee. Or connects as the Middle Ground with the Dark and Bloody Ground. And connects dark with bloody.)

1. Shell heaps, village sites, and stone implements were left in the eastern United States by prehistoric Asiatic migrants.

The conjunction and is placed on a broken line between the words it connects. The x indicates that a conjunction is understood.

2. For several generations their descendants lived along the riverbanks and subsisted on fish, small game, roots, and nuts.

The conjunction and connects the verbs lived and subsisted. The prepositional phrases for several generations are attached to the single predicate line because it modifies both verbs. Notice the diagramming of the four objects of the same preposition.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions used in pairs are called paired conjunctions, or correlatives: both… and; either… or; neither… nor; not only… but also.

Both archaeologists and anthropologists have speculated about these people.

Neither the wheel nor the horse was known to the prehistoric Indians.

Neither and nor are correlative conjunctions and are placed between the words they connect. Notice how neither is joined to nor.

INTERJECTION An interjection is a word or form of speech that expresses strong or sudden feeling.

An interjection has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence.

Look! This Indian pipe is made in the form of a man's figure. Oh, don't touch it!

A WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH to find the part of speech of a word, always ask you the question «What does the word do in the sentence?»

PART OF SPEECH JOB TO DO

Verb states, asks, commands

Noun, pronoun names

Adjective, adverb modifies, clarifies

Preposition introduces, shows-relationships

Conjunction connects

Interjection exclaims

Some words may be used as a number of different parts of speech.

Noun: There's a well in Uncle George's backyard.

Verb: Tears sometimes well up in Mrs. Simpson's eyes when she talks of her dead dog.

Adjective: Don't you feel well today?

Adverb: Stir the pudding well or it will scorch.

PRACTICE 5 Recognizing Words as Different Parts of Speech

Give orally the part of speech of each italicized word.

1. Bud waited within. 2. Bud waited within the house.

3. Oil your skates. 4. Put oil on your skates.

5. I'll take those. 6. I'll take those apples.

7. Birds eat insects. 8. Birds eat insect pests.

9. We walked across the ice. 10. We walked across.

11. We'll paper the kitchen next. 12. Mother chose a green paper.

13. We must sand the icy walks. 14. We used sand from the yard.

15. Marie likes her amethyst ring. 16. Her favorite stone is an amethyst.

17. I'll take that cantaloupe. 18. That's the one.

19. The story is sad but true. 20. No one knows the truth but me.

PRACTICE 6 Using a word as Different Parts of Speech.

Write sentences in which you use each of the following word as the different parts of speech named after it. Consult a dictionary if you need help.

1. flower-adjective, noun, verb.

2. on-adverb, preposition

3. tan-adjective, noun, verb

4. beyond - adverb, preposition

5. off - adverb, preposition

6. this-adjective, pronoun

7. neither-adjective, conjunction, pronoun

8. down-adverb, noun, preposition, verb

9. round - adjective, noun, preposition, verb

10. fair - adjective, adverb, noun

STRUCTURE CLUES

Three excellent clues to part of speech are (1) position in the sentence, (2) endings, and (3) signal words.

SENTENCE PATTERNS

Verbs. The verb occurs in an important position in the structure of a sentence. What you already know about English sentence structure will help you identify verbs.

The basketball player-down the court.

Where did you - the camera?

Any word you supply is a verb: ran, dribbled; leave, put.

Of course many words that can be used as verb are also used as other parts of speech - for example, fall down (verb) a sudden fall (noun). Example the entire sentence before trying to determine part of speech.

Nouns. Most nouns make a meaningful pattern with is or are at the beginning of a sentence.

Desk is friends are

Nouns often precede verbs: trees grow, student read, Jim hopes.

Of course many words that can be used as nouns are used also as other parts of speech-for example, brown thread, (noun), thread the needle (verb). A word is probable a noun if it completes a pattern like one of these:

- cannot live in polluted waters.

Near the - we found a-with a-

Adjectives: Most adjectives readily fit into three common position in the sentence: the normal, the predicate, and the appositive positions. A word is probably an adjective if it completes one of the following patterns:

Normal position Two-boys caught a-fish in the - stream.

Predicate Susan is usually -.

Appositive position: The coach, - and-, spoke proudly to his winning team.

Adverbs. Most words that fit into more than one place in a sentence are adverbs. Emphasis frequently determines placement.

Cheerfully the hostess greeted her arriving guests.

The hostess greeted her arriving guests cheerfully.

The hostess cheerfully greeted her arriving guests.

Carl lifted his hand - and moved his rook.

Or: Carl-lifted his hand and moved his rook.

ENDINGS

Certain suffixes and other endings provide additional help in indicating part of speech. A suffix is an addition to a word that helps create a new word. It doesn`t guarantee that a word will be a certain part of speech, but it does provide a clue.

Verbs. Common verb suffixes are ate, en, fy, ize, and ish: pollinate, strengthen, magnify, realize, admonish.

Common verb endings, which may occur with the preceding suffixes, are ing, ed, d, and t: was trying, hoped, told, and slept.

Nouns. Most nouns have a plural form, usually ending in`s and a possessive form ending in`s or s`

Singular desk Singular possessive desk's

Friend friend's

Plural desks Plural possessive desks`

Friends friends`

Certain suffixes are frequently used for nouns.

- ance (ence) reliance, audience - ion action

- ation nomination - ling weakling

- craft handicraft - ment abridgment

- dom freedom - ness politeness

- ee absentee - or creditor

- er officer - ry rivalry

- ess waitress - ship friendship

- ette launderette - th length

- ics ethics - tude fortitude

Adjectives. Certain suffixes are frequently used for adjectives.

- able (ible) portable - fic terrific

- ac (ic) aquatic - ful careful

- al (ical) inimical - ile infantile

- an (ian) Bostonian - ish boyish

- ant (ent) evident - ive passive

- ary military - less careless

- ed wicked - like homelike

- en oaken - ous generous

- ern northern - some loathsome

- esque grotesque - y cheery

Adverbs. Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to an adjective: free, freely; strict, strictly; certain, certainly. (Ly, however, is not a sure sign, for many adjectives are formed by adding ly to a noun: king, kingly; time, timely. The final test of part of speech is use in a sentence.)

Common adverb suffixes are wise, ward, and long: likewise, home-ward, and sidelong. (But what part of speech is sidelong in a sidelong glance?) The suffix is no guarantee of part of speech. Always test use in the sentence.

Signal words

Certain words signal that particular parts of speech will follow.

Words That Signal Verbs. Auxiliaries like may, can, will, could signal verbs. Words like he, it, or they also signal verbs. Read the word aloud, placing he, it, or they before it, and if the expression makes sense, the word can be used as a verb.

EXAMPLE

prep. n. adj. adj. n. v. prep. adj. n. conj. v.

In 1811 the first steamboat sailed down the Mississippi and inaugurated

adj. adj. n. prep. n.

a new era in navigation.

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