Kisses is kissed
Has kissed has been kissed
May be kissing may be being kissed
At the clause level, changing from active to passive has the following results:
a) the active subject, if retained, becomes the passive agent.
b) the active object becomes the passive subject.
c) the preposition by is inserted before the agent.
Aspect. Aspect is a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the action of a verb is viewed with respect on time. We recognize two aspects in English, the perfect and the progressive, which may combine in a complex verb phrase, and are marked for present or past tense:
Present perfect - has examined
Past perfect - had examined
Present progressive - is examining
Past progressive - was examining
Present perfect progressive - has been examining
Past perfect progressive - had been examining
Conclusions to Part II
1. Verbs are the very large lexical word class in English. Verb is a part of speech which denotes an action.
2. The verb has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion and by form words.
3. As a word class verbs can be divided into three main categories, according to their function within the verb phrase: the open class of Full Verbs (or lexical verbs), and the very small closed classes of Primary Verbs, and Modal Auxiliary Verbs.
4. The verb has finite and nonfinite forms (called verbals). There are three verbals in English: the participle, the gerund and the infinitive.
5. The subclasses of lexical verb that can be identified tend to depend on the context in which they occur. Whilst the traditional grammars distinguished between transitive and intransitive verbs.
6. Verbs are the nucleus around which sentences are typically built.
7. Whether an item takes a specifier or not is an important characterizing feature for the functional categories. Those lexical categories that take a specifier are verbs; those that do not are nouns and adjectives.
8. Verb phrase is the part of the predicate constituent that does not contain optional adverbials.
9. The simplest verb phrase will be a main lexical verb on its own. The other constituents of the verb phrase will be modal auxiliary, perfect auxiliary, progressive auxiliary, and passive verb.
10. The Verb Phrases exist of two types: finite VP and nonfinite VP. They have the grammatical categories of the verb itself.
Part III. Discourse Analysis of Verb Phrases in John Galsworthy's
FORSYTE SAGA. Part I. THE MAN OF PROPERTY (pp.1-10)
In his novel “FORSYTE SAGA” John Galsworthy preferably uses perfective and lexical verb phrases.
The following table shows the prevailing quantity of lexical verb phrases, that mainly denote human feelings, emotions, thoughts, decisions. And the other major group of verb phrases the author uses is the perfective verb phrases. Galsworthy uses them in order to show, how his personages' intentions are put into life, what means do they use, and what kind of results they bring out. Rarely he uses modal verbs, passive voice, and progressive verbs.
Summary of verb phrase structures
|
Type of VP
|
Example
|
Sum
|
%
|
|
|
Modal
|
She ought to be very happy.
This it was that she would have to lay down when it came to her turn to die.
How impossible and wrong would it have been for any family, with the regard for appearances which should ever characterize, the great upper middle-class, to feel otherwise than uneasy!
|
11
|
16
|
|
|
Perfective
|
A very sweet look had come into the old lady's face, she kissed the girl's check with trembling fervour.
It was her world, this family, and she knew no other, had never perhaps known any other.
Still, he had forfeited his right to be there, had cheated her of the complete fulfilment of her family pride, deprived her of the rightful pleasure of seeing and kissing him.
|
20
|
22
|
|
|
Progressive
|
Old Jolyon's coachman, was driving June and Bosinney to the theatre, and remarked to the butler…..
At the window his father, James, was still scrutinizing the marks on the piece of china..
|
6
|
12
|
|
|
Passive
|
Soames Forsyte, flat-shouldered, clean-shaven, flat-cheeked, flat-waisted, yet with something round and secret about his whole
appearance, looked downwards and aslant at Aunt Ann.
Her hands, gloved in French grey, were crossed one over the other, her grave, charming face held to one side, and the eyes of all men near were fastened on it.
|
9
|
15
|
|
|
Lexical
|
Aunt Ann turned her old eyes from one to the other.
When Winifred married Dartie, I made him bring every penny into settlement--lucky thing, too--they'd ha' had nothing by this time!"
|
33
|
35
|
|
|
The verb phrase can have just a verb, or a verb followed by a noun phrase, or a verb followed by an adjective phrase, or a verb followed by an adverb phrase, or a verb followed by a preposition phrase, or a verb followed by preposition phrase+ verb phrase, or a verb followed by two or more different phrases.
|
Verb phrase followed by other phrases
|
Example
|
Sum
|
%
|
|
|
VP having just a verb
|
“What are you givin?”
If Irene had no money she would not be so foolish as to do anything wrong; for they said--they said--she had been asking for a separate room; but, of course, Soames had not....
Timothy, indeed, was seldom seen.
|
17
|
9
|
|
|
VP followed by a NP
|
He was an architect, not in itself a sufficient reason for wearing such a hat.
Never had there been so full an assembly, for, mysteriously united in spite of all their differences, they had taken arms against a common peril.
There was warmth, but little colour, in her cheeks.
|
37
|
20
|
|
|
VP followed by an AdjP
|
If he were sleek, well-brushed, prosperous-looking, it was more necessary to give him nice things.
Her large, dark eyes were soft.
|
21
|
11
|
|
|
VP followed by AN AdvP
|
In the end each gave exactly what was right and proper.
His forehead sloped back towards the crown of his head, and bulged out in bumps over the eyes, like foreheads seen in the Lion-house at the Zoo.
And every now and then a Forsyte would come up, sidle round, and take a look at him.
|
27
|
14
|
|
|
VP followed by PP
|
Had she not said to Mrs. Soames--who was always so beautifully dressed--that feathers were vulgar?
Like cattle when a dog comes into the
field, they stood head to head and shoulder to shoulder, prepared to run upon and trample the invader to death.
How impossible and wrong would it
have been for any family, with the regard for appearances which should ever characterize, the great upper middle-class, to feel otherwise than uneasy!
A tall woman, with a beautiful figure, which some member of the family had once compared to heathen goddess, stood looking at these two with a shadowy smile.
|
34
|
17
|
|
|
VP followed by a PP+VP
|
He had never committed the imprudence of marrying, or encumbering himself in any way with children.
|
11
|
6
|
|
|
VP followed by two or more phrases.
|
The eldest by some years of all the Forsytes, she held a peculiar position amongst them.
The author of the uneasiness stood talking to June by the further door.
He stretched out his hand to meet that of a dapper, clean-shaven man, with hardly a hair on his head, a long, broken nose, full lips, and cold grey eyes under rectangular brows.
|
42
|
23
|
|
|
Conclusions to Part III
1. We have made a discourse analysis of the verb phrases in Forsyte Saga by John Galsworthy. As we may conclude the author frequently uses verb phrases.
2. According to the data from the tables we come to a conclusion that Galsworthy mainly describes people's acts, deeds and the results of these acts. This is why the author preferably uses the verb phrases of movement.
3. Galsworthy also uses simple lexical verbs to show feeling, emotions, thoughts of his heroes.
Conclusions
1. Syntax is the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.
2. The main object of syntax is sentence construction.
3. One of the most obvious yet important ways in which languages differ is the order of the main elements in a sentence.
4. The basic word order in English clauses is subject-verb-object, articles precede the noun they modify, and auxiliary verbs precede the main verb. These are English-specific syntactic rules.
5. The connection between the words in a sentence is realized through the changes in their forms and these changes in the form of the words to indicate their function in the sentence are called `inflections', and the study of the formation of words and how they may change their form is called morphology.
6. Syntax investigates simple sentences, as well as their combinations called complex sentences.
7. A central part of the description of what speakers do is characterizing the grammatical (or well-formed) sentences of a language and distinguishing them from ungrammatical or (ill-formed) sentences.
8. Two interrelated aspects of syntax: relational structure and constituent structure.
9. Words organization into phrases. Types of phrases.
10. In order to check if word combination is a phrase, the tests for phrases are to be done.
11. Verbs are the very large lexical word class in English. Verb is a part of speech which denotes an action.
12.Verb has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion and by form words.
13. As a word class verbs can be divided into three main categories, according to their function within the verb phrase: the open class of Full Verbs (or lexical verbs), and the very small closed classes of Primary Verbs, and Modal Auxiliary Verbs.
14.The verb has finite and nonfinite forms (called verbals). There are three verbals in English: the participle, the gerund and the infinitive.
15.The subclasses of lexical verb that can be identified tend to depend on the context in which they occur. Whilst the traditional grammars distinguished between transitive and intransitive verbs.
16. Verbs are the nucleus around which sentences are typically built.
17.Whether an item takes a specifier or not is an important characterizing feature for the functional categories. Those lexical categories that take a specifier are verbs; those that do not are nouns and adjectives.
18.Verb phrase is the part of the predicate constituent that does not contain optional adverbials.
19. The simplest verb phrase will be a main lexical verb on its own. The other constituents of the verb phrase will be modal auxiliary, perfect auxiliary, progressive auxiliary, and passive verb.
20. The Verb Phrases exist of two types: finite VP and nonfinite VP. They have the grammatical categories of the verb itself.
21. We have made a discourse analysis of the verb phrases in Forsyte Saga by John Galsworthy. As we may conclude the author frequently uses verb phrases.
22. According to the data from the tables we come to a conclusion that Galsworthy mainly describes people's acts, deeds and the results of these acts. This is why the author preferably uses the verb phrases of movement. Out of about 80 sentences examined on pp.1-10 35% contain simple lexical verb phrases, 22% - perfective verb phrases, 16% - with mostly modal verbs, in 15% of the sentences are preferably used passive VP and only in 6% of all sentences Galsworthy uses progressive verb phrases.
23. To make his language rich and colorful John Galsworthy uses verb phrases in combination with another word phrases. According to our research verb phrases are mainly proceeded by two or more different word combinations - 23% out of 226 sentences investigated, including 20% of the noun phrases. Verb phrases are also followed by preposition phrases - 17%, adverb phrases - 14%, adjective phrases - 11%. The minority of the word combinations following verb phrases is after verb phrases containing just a verb itself - 9%, and phrases including preposition phrase and verb phrase again.
Bibliography:
1. Арутюнова Н.А. Речевой акт// Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь / Гл. ред. В.Н. Ярцева, - М.: Сов. Энциклопедия, 1990. - С. 412-413.
2. Бондаренко А.В. Основы функциональной грамматики. Языковая интерпретация идеи времени. - 1999
3. Бенвенист Э. Общая лингвистика. - М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2002. - 447с.
4. Блох М.Я. Теоритическая грамматика английского языка. - М., «Высшая школа» 1983
5. Виноградов В.А. Лигвистический энциклопедический словарь/ Гл. ред. В.Н. Ярцева, - М.: Сов. Энциклопедия, 1990. - С. 128.
6. Бюлер К. Теория языка. Репрезентативная функция языка. - М: Прогресс, 1993. - 312 с.
7. Гальперин И.Р. Текст как обьект лингвистического исследования. - М.: Наука, 1981.-139 с.
8. Грицанов А.А. Пространство и время // Новейший философский словарь. - 3-е изд. - Минск : Книжный Дом, 2003. - С.804.
9. Есперсен О. Философия грамматики. - 2-е изд., стер. - М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2002. -404 с.
10. Зернецкий П.В. Четырехвымерное пространоство речевой деятельности // Язык, дискурс, личность. - Тверь, 1990.- С. 60-68.
11. Костюк О. Час у мовній картині світу людини // Науковий вісник Чернівецького університету. - Чернівці : Рута, 2001.- Вип.116.- Словянська філологія. - С. 155-159.
12. Мелюхин С.Т. Философский энциклопедический словарь/ Гл. ред. Л.Ф. Ильичев.- М.: Сов. Энциклопедия, 1983.- С.94-95.
13. Михайленко В.В. Дейктические границы текста // Матеріали Першої всеукраїнської науково-політичної конференції “Україна наукова 2001”. - Т.7.- Дніпропетровськ: Наука освіта, 2001.- С. 18-19.
14. Николаева Т.М. Текст // Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь / Гл. ред. В.Н. Ярцева, - М.: Сов. Энциклопедия, 1990. - С. 507
15. Тураева, З.Я. Категория времени. Время грамматическое и время художественное : Учебное пособие. - М.: Высшая школа, 1979.-219с.
16. Buechler K. Theory of Language. - Amsterdam/ Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1990. - 352 p.
17.Burton-Roberts, N. Analysing Sentences, 2nd edt. - Harlow, Addison Wesley Longman, 1997
18.Clark H., Marshall, C. Definite reference and mutual knowledge. Elements of discourse. - Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981. - 320p.
19. Carter, R. and McCarthy, M.The Cambridge Grammar of Spoken English - Cambridge,Cambridge University Press, 2005
20. Chapman, S. Thinking About Language - Theories of English Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 - Pp.47 - 172
21. Chomsky, N. Syntactic Structures - The Hague, Mouton. 1957.
22.Collins, P. English Grammar - Melbourne, Addison Wesley Longman, 1998
23. Coulthard, M. Introduction to Discourse Analysis - London, Longman, 1977.
24.de Saussure, F.Course in General Linguistics - Glasgow, Collins, 1974.
25. Greenbaum, S. The Oxford English Grammar - Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996. - Pp.153 - 215
26. Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar - London, 1985 - 452p.
27. Hockett, C.A Course in Modern Linguistics - New York, Macmillan,1958 - 648p.
28. Horrocks, G. Generative Grammar - London, Longman, 1987 - 454 p.
29. Huddleston, R. and Pullum, G. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language - Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002 - Pp.31 - 317.
30. Hutchby, I. and Wooffitt, R. Conversation Analysis: Principles, Practices and Applications - Cambridge, Polity Press, 1988 - 550 p.
31. Kearns, K. Semantics - Basingstoke, Macmillan, 2000 - 590 p.
32. .Kuiper, K. and Scott Allan, W. An Introduction to English Language, 2nd edt. - Basingstoke, 2004 - 376p).
33.Labov, W., Ash, S. and Boberg, C. The Atlas of North American English - New York, Mouton de Gruyter, 2005 - 397p.
34. Leech, G. eaning and the English Verb - London, Longman, 1971.
35. Lobner, S. Understanding Semantics - London, Edward Arnold, 2002.
36. Levinson S. Pragmatics. - Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983. - Pp.34 - 47.
37. Lyons, J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics - Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1968 - 740 p.
38. Lyons, J.Language and Linguistics: An Introduction - Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981 - 561 p.
39. Macmillan English Dictionary. - Oxford: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc., 2003.- 861 p.
40. Matthews, P. Morphology - Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991 - Pp.41 - 271.
41. McArthur, T.The Oxford Companion to the English Language - Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992 - Pp.15 - 513.
42. McTaggart J.M.E The Unreality of Time. - Oxford University Press, 1933, 34 -244 p.
43. Palmer, F. The English Verb - London, 1974 - Pp. 5-352.
44.Palmer, F. Mood and Modality - Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1986 - 655p.
45. Simpson, P. Language, Ideology and Point of View - London, Routledge, 1993 - Pp. 45 - 233
46. Sinclair, J. and Coulthard, M. Towards an Analysis of Discourse - Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998 - Pp. 16 - 114.
47. Smith Q. Language and Time. - Oxford University Press, 1993. - Pp. 74 - 89
48. Stalnaker R. Vague Identity. - Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1988. - 220 p.
49. Stubbs, M. Discourse analysis: The Sociolinguistic Analysis of Natural Language - Chicago,University of Chicago Press, 1983 - Pp. 38 - 112.
50. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language - London, Longman, 1985 - 890 p.
51. www.ling.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/topics.
52. www.phon.ucl.ac.
53. www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/home.htm.
54. www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/
55. http://www.bookrags.com/
56. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/
57. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
58. http://www.bookrags.com/wiki/
59. Illustrative material J.Galsworthy “ Forsyte Saga ”
Glossary of Linguistic Terms
Adjective - is a word expressing a quality of a substance.
Adverb - is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
Article - is a structural part of speech used with nouns.
Aspect - is a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the action of a verb is viewed with respect on time.
Auxiliary verbs - verbs that have little or no lexical meaning. verbs, they help to form complex verb forms.
Cleft test - taking the original sentence, and putting it into the frame like: It is/was/will be ____ that/who ____, without changing it in any way except for taking one part of it out and putting it in the first slot, and putting the rest of the sentence in the second slot.
Constituent structure - the hierarchical organization of the units into a sentence.
Finite forms - lexical verbs that do not need an auxiliary verb in order to function in main clauses.
Intransitive verb - occurs with both indirect and direct objects.
Modal verbs express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.
Morphology - the study of the formation of words and how they may change their form.
Movement test - a specific case of movement and the formation of a passive sentence.
Nonfinite forms - verbs that do not express person, number or mood and cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.
Noun - is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
Noun phrase - the constituent composed of a noun and an article.
Object - is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of the verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun.
Predicate - is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing, denoted by the subject.
Preposition - is a part of speech which denotes the relations between the objects and phenomena.
Pronoun - is a part of speech which points out objects and their qualities without naming them.
Relational structure - kind of syntax investigating grammatical relations like subject and direct object; encompassing relationships like modifier-modified possessor-possessed .
Sentence - is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought.
Subject - is the principal part of two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the second principal part (the predicate) is grammatically dependent, i.e. in most case sit agrees with the subject in number and person.
Substitution test - substitution of a set of words with a single other word, without changing the overall meaning, in order to check if the words form a phrase.
Syntax - the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence
Transitive verb - occurs with an object in subject-predicator-object structures
Verb - is a part of speech which denotes an action.
Verb phrase - that part of the predicate constituent that does not contain optional adverbials.
Страницы: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
|
Знание — сила. Библиотека научных работ.
Verb phrases 
Наверх