There are cases, however, when the differentiation between the gerund and the participle presents some difficulty; for instance, it is not always easy to distinguish between a gerund as part of a compound noun and a participle used as an attribute to a noun. One should bear in mind that if we have a gerund as part of a compound noun, the person or thing denoted by the noun does not perform the action expressed by the ing-form: e.g. a dancing-hall (a hall for dancing), a cooking-stove (a stove for cooking), walking shoes, a writing-table, etc. B.S. Khaimovich, B.I. Rogovskaya. A Course in English Grammar. 1966 p. 98

If we have a participle used as an attribute the person denoted by the noun performs the action expressed by the mg-form: e.g. a dancing girl (a girl who dances), a singing child, etc.

However, there are cases which admit of two interpretations; for example a sewing machine may be understood in two ways: a machine for sewing and a machine which sews; a hunting dog may be a dog for hunting and a dog that hunts.

The gerund and verbal noun.

The gerund should not be confused with the verbal noun, which has the same suffix -ing. The main points of difference between the gerund and the verbal noun are as follows:

Chapter 2 Syntax and Semantics of English Verbals

2.2.1 The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence

The infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions. A single infinitive occurs but seldom: in most cases we find an infinitive phrase, i.e. an infinitive with one or several accompanying words.

The infinitive as a subject.

To doubt, under the circumstances, is almost to insult. (Ch. Bronte)

Сомневаться при таких обстоятельствах -- это почти означает нанести оскорбление.

То acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly, is the first duty of the artist. (Thurston)

Приобретать знания, и приобретать их непрерывно, -- вот первый долг художника.

From these examples we can see that the infinitive as a subject can be rendered in Russian by an infinitive, by a noun, or by a clause.

Though the infinitive as the subject sometimes precedes the predicate, cases when it follows the predicate are far more common; with the infinitive in the latter position, the sentence opens with the introductory it, which serves as an introductory subject. The introductory it is not translated into Russian. Швейцер А.Д. Теория перевода (статус, проблемы, аспекты). М., 1988. c. 101

It is useless to discuss the question. (Eliot)

Бесполезно обсуждать этот вопрос.

It was pleasant to be driving a car again. (Braine)

Было приятно снова вести машину.

The infinitive as a predicative.

My intention is to get into parliament. (Trollope)

Моя цель -- пройти в парламент.

The infinitive can also be used as part of a predicative.

The abode of Mrs. Betty was not easy to find. (Dickens)

Жилище миссис Бетти было нелегко найти.

The infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate.

(a) With modal verbs, modal expressions, and verbs expressing modality the infinitive forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate.

We must not leave him by himself any longer. (Dickens)

The train was to leave at midnight. (Hemingway)

(b) With verbs denoting the beginning, duration, or end of an action the infinitive forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.

Imprisonment began to tell upon him. (Dickens)

Before daylight it started to drizzle. (Hemingway)

The infinitive as an object.

Leila had learned to dance at boarding school. (Mansfield)

After the verbs to allow, to order, to ask, to beg, to request, to implore, to teach, to instruct we often find two objects, one of which is expressed by an infinitive.

After waiting some time, Mrs. Clements ... ordered the cabman to drive back to her lodgings. (Collins)

He asked me to walk in. (Collins)

The infinitive used as an object can be preceded by the introductory object it. The introductory object is not translated into Russian.

He found it utterly impossible to leave the spot. (Hardy)

Он считал совершенно невозможным покинуть это место.

The infinitive as part of a complex object.

I never saw you act this way before. (Dreiser)

Я никогда раньше не видел, чтобы вы так поступали.

The infinitive as an attribute.

The use of the infinitive as an attribute is far more extensive in English than in Russian: in Russian it modifies only abstract nouns, whereas in English it modifies both abstract and class nouns, indefinite pronouns (somebody, something, anybody, anything, etc.), ordinal numerals and the adjective last.

The infinitive as an attribute is rendered in Russian by an infinitive (chiefly after abstract nouns), by a subordinate clause or by a finite verb serving as the predicate of a simple sentence (after ordinal numerals and the adjective last).

I have not had time to examine this room yet. (Conan Doyle)

У меня еще не было времени осмотреть эту комнату.

Bathsheba was not a woman ... to suffer in silence. (Hardy)

Батшеба была не такая женщина, которая стала бы страдать молча.

The infinitive used as an attribute often has a modal significance -- it expresses an action thought of as obligatory or possible.

I've got my wife and little boy to look after. (Dreiser)

У меня есть жена и ребенок, о которых я должен заботиться.

There must be a lot of things in this world to make you very unhappy. (Thurston)

В этом мире, должно быть, много такого, что может сделать вас несчастным.

Tess was no insignificant creature to toy with and dismiss. (Hardy)

Тэсс была не такое незначительное существо, с которым можно поиграть и бросить.

Sometimes the infinitive used as an attribute implies a more or less prominent idea of purpose.

Here is a nice book to read before going to bed.

Вот книга, которую хорошо почитать перед сном.

Here is a charming little cottage to spend the summer in.

Вот очаровательный коттедж, is котором можно хорошо провести лето.

The infinitive as an adverbial modifier.

(a) The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier of purpose.

Laws were not made to be broken, laws were made to stay within. (Heym)

Законы были созданы не для того, чтобы их нарушать, а для того, чтобы им подчиняться.

The infinitive as an adverbial modifier of purpose can be introduced by in order and so as.

Sometimes you retreat in order to advance. (Heym)

Иногда отступают для того, чтобы вновь перейти в наступление.

(b) The infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of result. This chiefly occurs after adjectives modified by the adverbs enough and too.

His eyes were sharp enough to look after his own interest. (Heym)

Глаза у него были достаточно зоркие, чтобы позаботиться о собственной выгоде.

The infinitive as an adverbial modifier of result is also to be found in sentences of the following type:

He was so weak as to be unable to work.

Он был так слаб, что не мог работать.

As the above examples show the result expressed by the infinitive is often negative.

(c) The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier of comparison (manner); in most cases with an additional meaning of purpose.

In this function it is introduced by the conjunction `as if' or `as though'.

She nervously moved her hand towards his lips as if to stop him ... (Dickens)

Она нервно протянула руку к его губам, как будто хотела остановить его.

(d) The infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.

She was driven away, never to revisit this neighbourhood. (Ch. Bronte)

Она была вынуждена уехать и больше не вернулась в эти места.

I am sorry to have raised your expectations, Mr. Blake, only to disappoint them. (Collins)

Мне очень жаль, что я пробудил в вас надежду, мистер Блейк, только для того, чтобы затем отнять ее.

Some grammarians maintain that in sentences of this type the infinitive performs the function of an adverbial modifier of result (consequence).

The infinitive as parenthesis.

Well, to cut a long story short, they thought it would be more economical to live at the villa. (Maugham)

Короче говоря, они решили, что будет дешевле жить на вилле.

Не was rude, to say the least of it.

On был груб, чтобы не сказать больше.

2.2.2 Infinitive Сonstructions

In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the infinitive:

(1) the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction;

(2) the Subjective Infinitive Construction;

(3) the or-to-Infinitive Construction. Ilyish B.L. “The Structure of English Language” M., 1971, p.215

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.

The Objective with the Infinitive is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object.

In translating the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction into Russian we nearly always use a subordinate clause.

He's a wonderful teacher and I've never seen him lose his temper or get angry about anything. (Wilson)

Он замечательный учитель, и я никогда не видел, чтобы он вышел из себя или рассердился из-за чего-нибудь.

However, sometimes a sentence containing the Objective-with-he-Infinitive Construction is rendered by a simple sentence.

... the bombings at night made the old walls shake to their foundations. (Heym)

... от ночных бомбежек старые степы содрогались до самого основания (бомбежки заставляли стены содрогаться).

1. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to hear, to see, to watch, to feel, to observe, to notice, etc.

I haven't heard anyone call me. (Wilde)

Я не слышал, 'чтобы кто-нибудь меня звал.

I saw Brown enter the room. (Braine)

Я видел, как Браун вошел в комнату.

After verbs of sense perception only the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is passive we use Participle II.

I saw the fire slowly conquered. (Collins) Я видел как пожар постепенно потушили.

If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active is used.

He saw Fleur coming. (Galsworthy)

The verb to see is followed by a clause and not by the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction when it is not really a verb of sense perception, i.e. when it means 'to understand'.

I saw that he did not realize the danger.

Я видел (понимал), что он не сознает опасности.

After the verbs to see and to notice the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is not used with the verb to be; a subordinate clause is used in such cases.

I saw that he was pale.

When the verb to hear is not a verb of sense perception, i.e. when it means 'to learn', 'to be told', a clause or a gerund (and not the Objective-with-the-Infinitive) is used.

I hear that he left for the South (of his having left for the South).

Я слышал (мне сказали), что он уехал на юг.

2. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting mental activity, such as to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel, to trust, etc.

After verbs of mental activity in the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction the verb to be is generally used. (This restriction does not apply to the verb to expect.) The use of this construction after most verbs of mental activity is more characteristic of literary than of colloquial style.

I know you to be the most honest, spotless creature that ever lived. (Hardy)

Я знаю, что вы самое честное и безупречное существо из всех, когда-либо живших на свете.

I believe him to have no conscience at all. (Hardy)

Я считаю, что у него совершенно нет совести.

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